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Abstract
health worldwide, complicating treatment strategies and contributing to high mortality rates.
Among the prominent pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibit
robust resistance profiles against multiple antibiotics, necessitating the exploration of alternative
therapeutic options. Shilajit, a traditional medicinal substance originating from the Himalayas
and other mountainous regions, has garnered attention for its diverse biological activities,
including antimicrobial properties.
Objectives: This study investigates the potential of Shilajit aqueous extract against clinically
isolated MDR strains of S. aureus and P. aeruginosa from the Kalar District, Iraq.
Methodology: Antibacterial efficacy was evaluated using disk diffusion and broth micro
dilution methods. Statistical significance was determined using one-way ANOVA. All
experiments were performed in triplicate, with p < 0.05 considered statistically significant.
Results: Results demonstrated significant inhibition of S. aureus at concentrations above 25
mg/mL, while no activity was observed against P. aeruginosa. These findings underscore the
potential of Shilajit as a natural resource for developing alternative therapies amidst the growing
concern of antibiotic resistance.
Conclusions: Shilajit's efficacy against S. aureus highlights its promise as a targeted treatment
option, advocating for further exploration into its mechanisms and broader application in
combating antibiotic-resistant infections.
Recommendations: Preventive programs focusing on encouraging the use of Shilajit and
similar natural products should be considered. Further research is recommended to explore the
mechanisms of Shilajit's antibacterial activity and to evaluate its efficacy in clinical settings.
Keywords
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References
- Shameem N, Kamili AN, Ahmad M, Masoodi F, Parray JA. Antimicrobial activity of
- crude fractions and morel compounds from wild edible mushrooms of North western Himalaya.
- Microbial pathogenesis. 2017;105:356-60.
- Ganesan P, Reegan AD, David RHA, Gandhi MR, Paulraj MG, Al-Dhabi NA, et al.
- Antimicrobial activity of some actinomycetes from Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India.
- Alexandria journal of medicine. 2017;53(2):101-10.
- Chanda S, Rakholiya K, Parekh J. Indian medicinal herb: Antimicrobial efficacy of
- Mesua ferrea L. seed extracted in different solvents against infection causing pathogenic strains.
- Journal of acute disease. 2013;2(4):277-81.
- Sathiyaraj S, Suriyakala G, Gandhi AD, Babujanarthanam R, Almaary KS, Chen T-W, et
- al. Biosynthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity of gold nanoparticles. Journal of
- Infection and Public Health. 2021;14(12):1842-7.
- Shore CK, Coukell A. Roadmap for antibiotic discovery. Nature microbiology.
- ;1(6):1-2.
- Wright PM, Seiple IB, Myers AG. The evolving role of chemical synthesis in
- antibacterial drug discovery. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2014;53(34):8840-69.
- Agarwal SP, Khanna R, Karmarkar R, Anwer MK, Khar RK. Shilajit: a review.
- Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological
- Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives. 2007;21(5):401-5.
- Bhattacharya SK. Shilajit attenuates streptozotocin induced diabetes mellitus and
- decrease in pancreatic islet superoxide dismutase activity in rats. Phytotherapy Research.
- ;9(1):41-4.
- Ghosal S. Chemistry of shilajit, an immunomodulatory Ayurvedic rasayan. Pure and
- Applied Chemistry. 1990;62(7):1285-8.
- Acharya S, Frotan M, Goel R, Tripathi S, Das P. Pharmacological actions of Shilajit.
- Indian journal of experimental biology. 1988;26(10):775-7.
- AlShubaily F, Jambi E. LC/MS Profiling of Shilajit Extract for Antimicrobial &
- Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activities. Int Trans J Eng Manag Appl Sci Technol. 2022;13:1-13.
- Frolova L, Kiseleva T. Chemical composition of mumijo and methods for determining its
- authenticity and quality (a review). Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal. 1996;30:543-7.
- Schepetkin I, Khlebnikov A, Kwon BS. Medical drugs from humus matter: Focus on
- mumie. Drug development research. 2002;57(3):140-59.
- Bauer A, Kirby W, Sherris JC, Turck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a
- standardized single disk method. American journal of clinical pathology. 1966;45(4_ts):493-6.
- Wayne P. CLSI Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. CLSI
- supplements M. 2020;100.
- Perumal P, Sathakkathulla NA, Kumaran K, Ravikumar R, Selvaraj JJ, Nagendran V, et
- al. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous extract of shilajit and their
- anticancer activity against HeLa cells. Scientific Reports. 2024;14(1):2204.
- Balouiri M, Sadiki M, Ibnsouda SK. Methods for in vitro evaluating antimicrobial
- activity: A review. Journal of pharmaceutical analysis. 2016;6(2):71-9.
- Ferraro MJ. Performance standards for antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests2000.
- Garima Srivastava GS, Rohit Jain RJ, Nitya Vyas NV, Archana Mehta AM, Sumita
- Kachhwaha SK, Kothari S. Antimicrobial activity of the methanolic extract, fractions and
- isolated compounds from Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. 2013.
- El-Sayed M-IK, Amin H-K, Al-Kaf A-G. Anti-microbial, anti-oxidant and anti
- ulcerogenic effects of shilajit on gastric ulcer in rats. 2012.
- Shalini SR, Srivastav R. Antifungal activity screening and HPLC analysis of crude
- extract from Tectona grandis, Shilajit, Valeriana wallachi. The International Journal of
- Alternative Medicine. 2008;5(2):1540-2584.
- Muratova Kh N, Shakirov D. [Clinical treatment of suppurative wounds with mumie].
- Khirurgiia (Mosk). 1968;44(9):122-4.
- Ghosal S, Lal J, Singh SK. The core structure of Shilajit humus. Soil Biology and
- Biochemistry. 1991;23(7):673-80.
- Sherry L, Millhouse E, Lappin DF, Murray C, Culshaw S, Nile CJ, et al. Investigating the
- biological properties of carbohydrate derived fulvic acid (CHD-FA) as a potential novel therapy
- for the management of oral biofilm infections. BMC Oral Health. 2013;13:1-10.
References
Shameem N, Kamili AN, Ahmad M, Masoodi F, Parray JA. Antimicrobial activity of
crude fractions and morel compounds from wild edible mushrooms of North western Himalaya.
Microbial pathogenesis. 2017;105:356-60.
Ganesan P, Reegan AD, David RHA, Gandhi MR, Paulraj MG, Al-Dhabi NA, et al.
Antimicrobial activity of some actinomycetes from Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India.
Alexandria journal of medicine. 2017;53(2):101-10.
Chanda S, Rakholiya K, Parekh J. Indian medicinal herb: Antimicrobial efficacy of
Mesua ferrea L. seed extracted in different solvents against infection causing pathogenic strains.
Journal of acute disease. 2013;2(4):277-81.
Sathiyaraj S, Suriyakala G, Gandhi AD, Babujanarthanam R, Almaary KS, Chen T-W, et
al. Biosynthesis, characterization, and antibacterial activity of gold nanoparticles. Journal of
Infection and Public Health. 2021;14(12):1842-7.
Shore CK, Coukell A. Roadmap for antibiotic discovery. Nature microbiology.
;1(6):1-2.
Wright PM, Seiple IB, Myers AG. The evolving role of chemical synthesis in
antibacterial drug discovery. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2014;53(34):8840-69.
Agarwal SP, Khanna R, Karmarkar R, Anwer MK, Khar RK. Shilajit: a review.
Phytotherapy Research: An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological
Evaluation of Natural Product Derivatives. 2007;21(5):401-5.
Bhattacharya SK. Shilajit attenuates streptozotocin induced diabetes mellitus and
decrease in pancreatic islet superoxide dismutase activity in rats. Phytotherapy Research.
;9(1):41-4.
Ghosal S. Chemistry of shilajit, an immunomodulatory Ayurvedic rasayan. Pure and
Applied Chemistry. 1990;62(7):1285-8.
Acharya S, Frotan M, Goel R, Tripathi S, Das P. Pharmacological actions of Shilajit.
Indian journal of experimental biology. 1988;26(10):775-7.
AlShubaily F, Jambi E. LC/MS Profiling of Shilajit Extract for Antimicrobial &
Antifungal and Cytotoxic Activities. Int Trans J Eng Manag Appl Sci Technol. 2022;13:1-13.
Frolova L, Kiseleva T. Chemical composition of mumijo and methods for determining its
authenticity and quality (a review). Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal. 1996;30:543-7.
Schepetkin I, Khlebnikov A, Kwon BS. Medical drugs from humus matter: Focus on
mumie. Drug development research. 2002;57(3):140-59.
Bauer A, Kirby W, Sherris JC, Turck M. Antibiotic susceptibility testing by a
standardized single disk method. American journal of clinical pathology. 1966;45(4_ts):493-6.
Wayne P. CLSI Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. CLSI
supplements M. 2020;100.
Perumal P, Sathakkathulla NA, Kumaran K, Ravikumar R, Selvaraj JJ, Nagendran V, et
al. Green synthesis of zinc oxide nanoparticles using aqueous extract of shilajit and their
anticancer activity against HeLa cells. Scientific Reports. 2024;14(1):2204.
Balouiri M, Sadiki M, Ibnsouda SK. Methods for in vitro evaluating antimicrobial
activity: A review. Journal of pharmaceutical analysis. 2016;6(2):71-9.
Ferraro MJ. Performance standards for antimicrobial disk susceptibility tests2000.
Garima Srivastava GS, Rohit Jain RJ, Nitya Vyas NV, Archana Mehta AM, Sumita
Kachhwaha SK, Kothari S. Antimicrobial activity of the methanolic extract, fractions and
isolated compounds from Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. 2013.
El-Sayed M-IK, Amin H-K, Al-Kaf A-G. Anti-microbial, anti-oxidant and anti
ulcerogenic effects of shilajit on gastric ulcer in rats. 2012.
Shalini SR, Srivastav R. Antifungal activity screening and HPLC analysis of crude
extract from Tectona grandis, Shilajit, Valeriana wallachi. The International Journal of
Alternative Medicine. 2008;5(2):1540-2584.
Muratova Kh N, Shakirov D. [Clinical treatment of suppurative wounds with mumie].
Khirurgiia (Mosk). 1968;44(9):122-4.
Ghosal S, Lal J, Singh SK. The core structure of Shilajit humus. Soil Biology and
Biochemistry. 1991;23(7):673-80.
Sherry L, Millhouse E, Lappin DF, Murray C, Culshaw S, Nile CJ, et al. Investigating the
biological properties of carbohydrate derived fulvic acid (CHD-FA) as a potential novel therapy
for the management of oral biofilm infections. BMC Oral Health. 2013;13:1-10.