Article Sidebar

Published
June 28, 2026
Download
PDF
Statistic
Read Counter : 8

Main Article Content

Abstract

Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy, either spontaneously (miscarriage)or intentionally (induced abortion). or it is define a spontaneous loss of pregnancy before 20 weeks. Intentional abortion ends 6 out of 10 unintended pregnancies. Approximately 97% of unsafe abortions occur in developing nations, accounting for Several bacteria are associated with abortion, most notably Listeria monocytogenes, Chlamydia trachomatis, Mycoplasma hominis, and infections linked to bacterial vaginosis(BV) which Characterized by a reduction in beneficial Lactobacillus species and an overgrowth of anaerobes like Gardnerella vaginalis, These pathogens can disrupt pregnancy by causing uterine infection, sepsis, or altering the vaginal microbiome. The maternal infections that are transmissible from mother to fetus are caused by many pathogens.

Keywords

bacterial vaginosis vaginal microbiome miscarriage induced abortion

Article Details

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Essra D.Taher, Huda Natiq Faris

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

References

  1. George, L.; Granath, F.; Johansson, A; Olanoler, B. and Chattingius S. Risk of repeated miscarriage. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiology. 2006 ; 20: 26-119 https://doi.10.1111/j.1365-3016.2006.00703.x
  2. Prine Linda. and Macnaughton Honor. Office management of early pregnancy loss. American Family Physician. 2011 ;84: 76 84.
  3. Goddijn, M and Leschot N. Genetic aspects of miscarriage. Baillieres Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol, 2000; 4:855 https://doi.10.1053/beog.2000.0124
  4. Kaponis, A. Filindris Theodoros and Decavalas George.Septic Shock in Obstetrics and Gynecology, Severe Sepsis and Septic Shock - Understanding a Serious Killer, Dr Ricardo Fernandez (Ed.).
  5. Seliga-Siwecka J. and Kornacka M. Bacterial vaginosis, intrauterine infection, neonatal outcome– a review of current knowledge Archives of Perinatal Medicine 2011;17: 69-71.
  6. Anjum, M. Study of bacterial vaginosis in pregnancy and its maternal and fetaloutcome. M.S.C. Thesis. Yenepoya medical college. University of health sciences. 2011.
  7. Shatha Hussein Kadhim, Moayad Mijbil Ubaid, and Zahraa abed . Abortion and Related Causes 2023.
  8. Yu W, Hu X, Cao B. Viral infections during pregnancy: the big challenge threatening maternal and fetal health. Maternal-Fetal Medicine .2022 mednexus.org
  9. Kato M, Yamaguchi K, Maegawa Y, Komine‐Aizawa S, Kondo E, Ikeda T. Intrauterine fetal death during COVID‐19 pregnancy: typical fetal heart rate changes, coagulopathy, and placentitis. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Research. 2022 Jul;48(7):1978-82. nih.gov
  10. McClure EM, Silver RM, Kim J, Ahmed I, Kallapur M, Ghanchi N, Nagmoti MB, Dhaded S, Aceituno A, Tikmani SS, Saleem S. Maternal infection and stillbirth: a review. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine .2022 Dec 2;35(23):4442-50. academia.edu
  11. Gudnadottir U, Debelius JW, Du J, Hugerth LW, Danielsson H, Schuppe-Koistinen I, Fransson E, Brusselaers N. The vaginal microbiome and the risk of preterm birth: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Scientific reports .2022 May 13;12(1):7926. nature.com https://doi.10.1038/s41598-022-12007-w
  12. Nguyen QH, Le HN, Nguyen ND, Le MT. Lower genital tract infections in preterm premature rupture of membranes and preterm labor: a case-control study from Vietnam. The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries .2021 Jun 30;15(06):805-11. jidc.org https://doi:10.3855/jidc.13282
  13. Daskalakis G, Psarris A, Koutras A, Fasoulakis Z, Prokopakis I, Varthaliti A, Karasmani C, Ntounis T, Domali E, Theodora M, Antsaklis P. Maternal infection and preterm birth: from molecular basis to clinical implications. Children. 2023 May 22;10(5):907. mdpi.com
  14. Macpherson ML, Bailey CS: A clinical approach to managing the mare with placentitis. Theriogenology. 2008;70:435-440. 6. https://doi10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.04.003
  15. Hacer H, Reyhan B, Sibel Y. To determine of the prevalence of Bacterial Vaginosis, Candida sp, mixed infections (Bacterial Vaginosis + Candida sp), Trichomonas Vaginalis, Actinomyces sp in Turkish women from Ankara, Turkey. Ginekol Pol. 2012; 83:744–8.
  16. Prospero FD: Focus on candida, trichomonas, bacteria and atrophic vaginitis. Available at http://womanhealthgate.com/focus-candidatrichomonasbacteria-atrophic-vaginitis/ on July 10, 2014.
  17. Moore A, Traversy G, Reynolds DL, Riva JJ, Thériault G, Wilson BJ, Subnath M, Thombs BD. Recommendation on screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea in primary care for individuals not known to be at high risk. Cmaj. 2021 Apr 19;193(16):E549-59. cmaj.ca
  18. Bishi MA, Kaur P, Vyas M, Sharma S. Ameliorating Gonorrhea: Recent Therapeutic Adaptations and Scope to Improve its Prevailing Condition. Infectious Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-Infectious Disorders). 2024 Aug 1;24(5):6-20. [HTML]
  19. Lovett A, Seña AC, Macintyre AN, Sempowski GD, Duncan JA, Waltmann A. Cervicovaginal microbiota predicts neisseria gonorrhoeae clinical presentation. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2022 Feb 10;12:790531. frontiersin.org
  20. Rocha AF, Araújo MA, Barros VL, Américo CF, Silva Júnior GB. Complications, clinical manifestations of congenital syphilis, and aspects related to its prevention: an integrative review. Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem. 2021 Jul 14;74:e20190318. scielo.br https://doi10.1590/0034-7167-2019-0318
  21. Eppes CS, Stafford I, Rac M. Syphilis in pregnancy: an ongoing public health threat. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2022 Dec 1;227(6):822-38. [HTML]
  22. Kurniawati EM, Rahmatyah R, Lie V, Rheza A. Pregnancy with Early Latent Syphilis, a reality in 21st century: a case report and literature review. Medical and Health Science Journal. 2022;6(1). unair.ac.id
  23. Van Der Pol B, Taylor SN, Mena L, Lebed J, McNeil CJ, Crane L, Ermel A, Sukhija-Cohen A, Gaydos CA. Evaluation of the performance of a point-of-care test for chlamydia and gonorrhea. JAMA network open. 2020 May 1;3(5):e204819-. jamanetwork.com https://doi10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.4819
  24. Ravindran J, Richardson BA, Kinuthia J, Unger JA, Drake AL, Osborn L, Matemo D, Patterson J, McClelland RS, John-Stewart G. Chlamydia, gonorrhea, and incident HIV infection during pregnancy predict preterm birth despite treatment. The Journal of infectious diseases. 2021 Dec 15;224(12):2085-93. nih.gov
  25. Gao J, Chen X, Yang M, Wu Y, Liang T, Li H, Xie W. Adverse pregnancy outcomes and associated risk factors among pregnant women with syphilis during 201325. Şahin B, Şahin B, Şahin GC. Sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy, screening and treatment. Current Obstetrics and Gynecology Reports. 2022. [HTML]
  26. Şahin B, Şahin B, Şahin GC. Sexually transmitted infections in pregnancy, screening and treatment. Current Obstetrics and Gynecology Reports. 2022. [HTML]
  27. Warner AJ, Hathaway-Schrader JD, Lubker R, Davies C, Novince CM. Tetracyclines and bone: Unclear actions with potentially lasting effects. Bone. 2022 Jun 1;159:116377. sciencedirect.com
  28. Tsamantioti ES, Hashmi MF. Teratogenic medications. StatPearls [Internet]. 2023. nih.gov
  29. Coniglione F, Luciani F, Papa E, Leggeri A, Agrestini C. Guidelines for the Management of Pregnant Patients in Dentistry. ALBANIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES. 2023. umed.edu.al
  30. Payne MS, Newnham JP, Doherty DA, Furfaro LL, Pendal NL, Loh DE, Keelan JA. A specific bacterial DNA signature in the vagina of Australian women in midpregnancy predicts high risk of spontaneous preterm birth (the Predict1000 study). American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 2021 Feb 1;224(2):206-e1.
  31. Jakheng SP, Obeagu EI. Seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus based on demographic and risk factors among pregnant women attending clinics in Zaria Metropolis …. J Pub Health Nutri. 2022. researchgate.net
  32. Ngong IN, Fru-Cho J, Yung MA, Akoachere JF. Prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility pattern and associated risk factors for urinary tract infections in pregnant women attending ANC in some integrated health centers in the Buea Health District. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2021 Dec;21:1-0. springer.com
  33. Montbrau C, Fontseca M, March R, Sitja M, Benavides J, Ortega N, Caro MR, Salinas J. Evaluation of the efficacy of a new commercially available inactivated vaccine against ovine enzootic abortion. Frontiers in veterinary science. 2020 Sep 4;7:593. frontiersin.org
  34. Kruglova M, Nikitin N, Evtushenko E, Matveeva I, Mazurov A, Pavlenko I, Popova V, Bogomolova O, Vasilyev S, Markova E, Fedorov Y. Inactivated Flagellin-Containing Vaccine Efficacy against Ovine Enzootic Abortion. Pathogens. 2024 Mar 35.
  35. Lianou DT, Fthenakis GC. Use of antibiotics against bacterial infections on dairy sheep and goat farms: Patterns of usage and associations with health management and human Antibiotics. 2022. mdpi.com
  36. Zhang H, Deng X, Cui B, Shao Z, Zhao X, Yang Q, Song S, Wang Z, Wang Y, Wang Y, Liu Z. Abortion and various associated risk factors in dairy cow and sheep in Ili, China. PLoS One. 2020 Oct 30;15(10):e0232568. plos.org
  37. Dorsch MA, Casaux ML, Calleros L, Aráoz V, Caffarena RD, Monesiglio C, Barcellos M, da Silva Silveira C, Perdomo Y, Banchero G, Uzal FA. Placentitis and abortion caused by a multidrug resistant strain of Campylobacter fetus subspecies fetus in a sheep in Uruguay. Revista Argentina de microbiologia. 2022 Jan 1;54(1):25-30. sciencedirect.com
  38. Chauhan RS, Malik YS, Saminathan M, Tripathi BN. Immunopathology of Reproductive Disorders of Animals. InEssentials of Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 2024 Feb 29 (pp. 293-372). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. [HTML]
  39. Ferrer-Oliveras R, Mendoza M, Capote S, Pratcorona L, Esteve-Valverde E, Cabero-Roura L, Alijotas-Reig J. Immunological and physiopathological approach of COVID-19 in pregnancy. Archives of gynecology and obstetrics. 2021 Jul;304(1):39-57. springer.com
  40. Albrektsson T, Tengvall P, Amengual L, Coli P, Kotsakis GA, Cochran D. Osteoimmune regulation underlies oral implant osseointegration and its perturbation. Frontiers in immunology. 2023 Jan 24;13:1056914. frontiersin.org
  41. Hajibemani A, Sheikhalislami H. Zoonotic pathogens cause of animal abortion and fetal loss. Journal of Zoonotic Diseases. 2020. tabrizu.ac.ir
  42. Elizalde-Bielsa A, Muñoz PM, Zúñiga-Ripa A, Conde-Álvarez R. A Review on the Methodology and Use of the Pregnant Mouse Model in the Study of Brucella Reproductive Pathogenesis and Its Abortifacient Effect. Microorganisms. 2024 Apr 26;12(5):866. mdpi.com
  43. Chauhan RS, Malik YS, Saminathan M, Tripathi BN. Immunopathology of Reproductive Disorders of Animals. InEssentials of Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology.2024 Feb 29 (pp. 293-372). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. [HTML]
  44. Blanchard MT, Teglas MB, Collins KM, Anderson ML, McNabb BR, Stott JL. Protective immunity induced through two calving seasons following administration of live epizootic bovine abortion agent (EBAA) vaccine. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology. 2024 May 3:110772. [HTML]
  45. Tabrizi S, Warner T. Thomas Foltynie1, 2, Kailash Bhatia1, 2, Carla Cordivari2, Eileen Joyce1, 2, Prasad Korlipara2, Patricia Limousin1, 2, Tabish Saifee2. Neurology: A Queen Square Textbook. 2024. [HTML]
  46. Montera MW, Marcondes-Braga FG, Simoes MV, Moura LA, Fernandes F, Mangine S, Oliveira Júnior AC, Souza AL, Ianni BM, Rochitte CE, Mesquita CT. Brazilian Society of Cardiology Guideline on Myocarditis–2022. Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia. 2022 Jul 11;119:143-211
  47. Freitas Goes E, de Souza Menezes GM, Chagas de Almeida MD, Velho Barreto-de-Araújo T, Valongueiro Alves S, Seabra Soares de Britto Alves MT, ML Aquino EM. Barriers in accessing Care for Consequence of unsafe abortion by black women: evidence of institutional racism in Brazil. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. 2021 Dec 1:1-0. [HTML] https://10.1007/s40615-021-01114-2
  48. Baguiya A, Mehrtash H, Bonet M, Adu‐Bonsaffoh K, Compaoré R, Bello FA, Govule P, Msusa AT, Kim CR, Kouanda S. Abortion‐related infections across 11 countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Prevalence, severity, and management. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 2022 Jan;156:36-43. wiley.com
  49. Freitas Goes E, de Souza Menezes GM, Chagas de Almeida MD, Velho Barreto-de-Araújo T, Valongueiro Alves S, Seabra Soares de Britto Alves MT, ML Aquino EM. Barriers in accessing Care for Consequence of unsafe abortion by black women: evidence of institutional racism in Brazil. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities. 2021 Dec 1:1-0. [HTML]
  50. Diguisto C, surveillance Saucedo M, Kallianidis A, Bloemenkamp… K. Maternal mortality in eight European countries with enhanced systems: descriptive population based study. bmj. 2022. bmj.com
  51. Baffour-Duah K, Shimange-Matsose L, Olorunfemi G. Socio-demographic and reproductive characteristics of clients that accepted contraceptives at abortion center at the Charlotte Maxeke Johannesburg Academic Hospital (CMJAH), Johannesburg, South Africa: a cross-sectional study (January-July 2021). The Pan African Medical Journal. 2023;45. nih.gov https://doi10.11604/pamj.2023.45.114.38589
  52. Pek Z, Heil E, Wilson E. Getting with the times: a review of peripartum infections and proposed modernized treatment regimens. Open forum infectious diseases. 2022. oup.com
  53. Ly S, Kamal K, Manjaly P, Barbieri JS, Mostaghimi A. Treatment of acne vulgaris during pregnancy and lactation: a narrative review. Dermatology and therapy. 2023 Jan;13(1):115-30. springer.com
  54. Haahr T, Freiesleben NL, Pinborg A, Nielsen HS, Hartvig V, Mikkelsen AL, Parks T, Uldbjerg N, Jensen JS, Humaidan P. Effect of clindamycin and a live biotherapeutic on the reproductive outcomes of IVF patients with abnormal vaginal microbiota: protocol for a double-blind, placebo-controlled multicentre trial. BMJ open. 2020 Oct 1;10(10):e035866. bmj.com
  55. Santamaría Arrieta G, Rodríguez Sánchez F, Rodriguez-Andrés C, Barbier L, Arteagoitia I. The effect of preoperative clindamycin in reducing early oral implant failure: a randomised placebo-controlled clinical trial. Clinical Oral Investigations. 2023 Mar;27(3):1113-22. springer.com
  56. Bretelle F, Loubière S, Desbriere R, Loundou A, Blanc J, Heckenroth H, Schmitz T, Benachi A, Haddad B, Mauviel F, Danoy X. Effectiveness and costs of molecular screening and treatment for bacterial vaginosis to prevent preterm birth: The AuTop Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA pediatrics. 2023 Sep 1;177(9):894-902. jamanetwork.com . doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2023.2250
  57. Owens DK, Davidson KW, Krist AH, Barry MJ, Cabana M, Caughey AB, Donahue K, Doubeni CA, Epling JW, Kubik M, Ogedegbe G. Screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnant persons to prevent preterm delivery: US preventive services task force recommendation statement. Jama. 2020 Apr 7;323(13):1286-92. jamanetwork.com
  58. Mohanty T, Doke PP, Khuroo SR. Effect of bacterial vaginosis on preterm birth: A meta-analysis. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2023. researchsquare.com
  59. Tantengco OAG, Menon R. Breaking down the barrier: the role of cervical infection and inflammation in preterm birth. Frontiers in Global Women's Health. 2022. frontiersin.org
  60. Tedesco RP, Galvão RB, Guida JP, Passini-Júnior R, Lajos GJ, Nomura ML, Rehder PM, Dias TZ, Souza RT, Cecatti JG. The role of maternal infection in preterm birth: evidence from the Brazilian Multicentre Study on Preterm Birth (EMIP). Clinics. 2020 Mar 23;75:e1508. scielo.br
  61. Brindhadevi K, LewisOscar F, Mylonakis E, Shanmugam S, Verma TN, Pugazhendhi A. Biofilm and Quorum sensing mediated pathogenicity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Process Biochemistry. 2020 Sep 1;96:49-57. [HTML]
  62. Sedarat Z, Taylor-Robinson AW. Biofilm Formation by Pathogenic Bacteria: Applying a Staphylococcus aureus Model to Appraise Potential Targets for Therapeutic Intervention. Pathogens. 2022. mdpi.com
  63. Vestby LK, Grønseth T, Simm R, Nesse LL. Bacterial biofilm and its role in the pathogenesis of disease. Antibiotics. 2020. mdpi.com
  64. Huemer M, Mairpady Shambat S, Brugger SD, Zinkernagel AS. Antibiotic resistance and persistence—Implications for human health and treatment perspectives. EMBO reports. 2020 Dec 3;21(12):e51034. embopress.org
  65. Trubenová B, Roizman D, Moter A, Rolff J, Regoes RR. Population genetics, biofilm recalcitrance, and antibiotic resistance evolution. Trends in microbiology. 2022 Sep 1;30(9):841-52. [HTML]
  66. Windels EM, Cool L, Persy E, Swinnen J, Matthay P, Van den Bergh B, Wenseleers T, Michiels J. Antibiotic dose and nutrient availability differentially drive the evolution of antibiotic resistance and persistence. The ISME Journal. 2024 May 1:wrae070. oup.com
  67. Kraetschmer K. The Contraceptive Methods Table as Preventive Instrument for Avoiding Abortion. Am J Obstetr Gynecol Res. 2022. medtextpublications.com
  68. Boyer CB, Gaydos CA, Geller AB, Garges EC, Vermund SH. Sexually transmitted infections in the US military: a sexual health paradigm to address risk behaviors, unintended pregnancy, alcohol use, and sexual trauma. Military medicine. 2022 May 1;187(5-6):140-3. nih.gov
  69. Allen JA. The History of Sexuality and Women's History. The Cambridge World History of Sexualities: Volume 1, General Overviews. 2024 Apr 30. [HTML]
  70. Guarner J, Del Rio C, Malani PN. Monkeypox in 2022—what clinicians need to know. Jama. 2022. jamanetwork.com
  71. Grünebaum A, Chervenak J, Pollet SL, Katz A, Chervenak FA. The exciting potential for ChatGPT in obstetrics and gynecology. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2023 Jun 1;228(6):696-705. [HTML]
  72. Bátiz LF, Illanes SE, Romero R, del Valle Barrera M, Mattar CN, Choolani MA, Kemp MW. Climate change and preterm birth: A narrative review. Environmental Advances. 2022 Dec 1;10:100316. sciencedirect.com
  73. Ijdi RE, Tumlinson K, Curtis SL. Exploring association between place of delivery and newborn care with early-neonatal mortality in Bangladesh. Plos one. 2022. plos.org
  74. Ravel J, Moreno I, Simón C. Bacterial vaginosis and its association with infertility, endometritis, and pelvic inflammatory disease. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology. 2021 Mar 1;224(3):251-7. sciencedirect.com
  75. Chen H, Wang L, Zhao L, Luo L, Min S, Wen Y, Lei W, Shu M, Li Z. Alterations of vaginal microbiota in women with infertility and Chlamydia trachomatis infection. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021 Aug 3;11:698840. frontiersin.org
  76. Hsu I, Hsu L, Dorjee S, Hsu CC. Bacterial colonization at caesarean section defects in women of secondary infertility: an observational study. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 2022. springer.com
  77. Kowalska JD, Kazimierczak J, Sowińska PM, Wójcik EA, Siwicki AK, Dastych J. Growing trend of fighting infections in aquaculture environment—opportunities and challenges of phage therapy. Antibiotics. 2020 Jun 4;9(6):301. mdpi.com
  78. Wallis RS, O'Garra A, Sher A, Wack A. Host-directed immunotherapy of viral and bacterial infections: past, present and future. Nature Reviews Immunology. 2023. nature.com
  79. Li Z, Wang Y, Liu J, Rawding P, Bu J, Hong S, Hu Q. Chemically and biologically engineered bacteria‐based delivery systems for emerging diagnosis and advanced therapy. Advanced Materials. 2021 Sep;33(38):2102580. [HTML]
  80. Pam S, Augustine AU, Oluwabunmi TO, Enang E, Gerald I. Identifiable Risk Factors for Ectopic Gestation in Federal Medical Centre, Keffi. Tropical Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2020;37(3):563-74. tjog.org
  81. Siwatch S, Bagga R, Singh T, Khastgir G. Pyomyoma after caesarean section: a rare entity. BMJ Case Reports CP. 2024 Mar 1;17(3):e257190. researchgate.net
  82. Salmanov AG, Ishchak OM, Shostak YM, Kozachenko VV, Rud VO, Golyanovskiy OV, Shkorbotun VO. Bacterial infection causes of pregnancy loss and premature birth in the women in Ukraine. nuozu.edu.ua
  83. Wall LL, Yemane A. Infectious complications of abortion. Open forum infectious diseases. 2022. oup.com
  84. Zhao X, Pan Q, Li F, Gao B, Zhang A, Huang H, Xu D, Cheng C. The association between vaginal. microbiota disorders and early missed abortion: a prospective study. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 2022 Sep;101(9):960-71. wiley.com https://doi10.1111/aogs.14410

Similar Articles

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.